How does the brain work anyway A short overview on the future of neuroscience

How is the brain organized?: Brain Mapping If the ultimate goal of neuroscience is to understand how the brain works, how will scientists know when that goal has been reached? Is it by our ability to build artificial intelligence matching human capabilities? Our ability to treat or completely prevent neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s, or mental disorders like schizophrenia? Creating machines that can read our thoughts and actions? Neuroscience has made tremendous strides, but the goal of understanding the brain might be more of a moving target because the more we find out about the brain, the more questions we have. The following questions are the ones likely to be addressed in the next 50 years, but it is also possible that the most interesting questions have not even been asked yet because we lack the technology or need the future generation of scientists to look at old questions from a new angle. How is the brain organized?: Brain Mapping Neurons are chemically connected to multiple partners to form dense networks. The human brain has around 86 billion neurons (that’s more than the number of people on earth) and these neurons can form thousands of connections with other neurons. These networks function are highways where information can flow from one part of the brain to another. Trying to map out these ‘highways’ is the goal of connectomics, or brain mapping. In 1986, the 302 neurons of the worm nervous system was mapped and it has already led to insights about how nervous systems across species develop and convert information about their environment into behavior. Now, current efforts are working on mapping the brains of more complex nervous systems like that of fruit fly larvae (~10,000 neurons). In the next few decades, it is likely that we will also map the brains of animals who are more similar to us, such as mice. Although knowing the connections of neurons will be informative, it will repre sent a static map whereas the brain is a dynamic with neurons influencing each other’s activity across long distances. Once brain mapping becomes easier and more cost-effective, it will also be possible to ask how connections between neurons are altered by different experiences and by genetic mutations. Can you edit a broken brain? CRISPR is the latest gene editing tool to receive widespread attention both in the media and across the scientific community. It makes the editing of genes faster, more precise, and cost-effective. The sudden rise of CRISPR has led many to imagine (or fear) the potential applications of such a technique. For one, it will allow scientists to make better models of diseases. Since we know some of the mutations that can cause or make humans susceptible to certain brain diseases, we can introduce these mutations in mice and see how the disease progresses and what therapies are most effective. Thus, having an easier way to precisely introduce mutations will improve research. More controversially, CRISPR is being considered for its therapeutic potential in humans. That is, if you know you will pass on a specific mutation to your offspring, would you opt to correct it through gene editing? While it would be a while before this technology would be widely available, its potential is likely to be explored in the next few decades. But really, how does the brain work anyway? In the end, the future of neuroscience might not be so futuristic after all and might just uncover the answer to some basic questions that still elude us. How do we convert information about the environment around us (light, sound, smell, touch) into behavior? How are these behaviors modified by context? For instance, someone tapping you on the shoulder might go completely ignored if you are binge watching your favorite TV show, or cause you to jerk if you’re at work and feeling on edge. The question of how we perceive sensory information is of clinical importance because of how little we know about how pain is processed by our nervous system. A better understanding could help the millions of people who suffer from chronic pain and other pain disorders. Other unanswered questions include-- how do different brain areas communicate? Why do we need sleep? What are the differences between male and female brains? The next 50 years is sure to bring lots of exciting discoveries and b ring us closer to understanding how the brain works, however we choose to define that! Are you interested in working with coaches like Anita on your academic pursuits in the sciences? ; Are you interested in reading more? What are Lymphocytes? A Guide to Your Immune System What to expect during interview weekend for PhD Biomedical programs Biology Made Easy: How Reversible Enzyme Inhibitors Work

Intermediate Financial Accounting - Accounting scandals Essay

Essays on Intermediate Financial Accounting - Accounting scandals Essay Enron’s accounting scandal Corporate governance is a term used in business organizations to define the overall direction of the enterprise and method of control used by the executives. This involves the use of proper management techniques by the chief executive officers and major shareholders of the company, who must act in the best interests of the company. Failure to follow through with effective governance will automatically lead to the collapse of a vibrant business venture. One such example was the case scenario seen in the collapse of Enron Organization. The company began as an energy providing business in Houston due to a merger of two gas companies and later transformed itself into a major energy trading corporation led by Kenneth Lay, its founder. However, there emerged some corporate problems in the management who seemed to be out of control as they did what pleased them defying company’s interests. Reports were that the entire management team was behaving in a manner that did not blend in well with most of their clients. The latter were described to be out to propagate their own agenda and thus became negligent in providing company affairs. To elaborate, the head of the internal audit committee had her senate husband funded by the organization. In addition, Lord Wakeham who was part of the audit committee had a concurrent consulting firm in the same company. Cases of arrogance were very common in the organization as was bootlicking on the part of senior management. The subordinate staff was very afraid of the Chief Execut ive Officer and adhered to him as though they were enslaved. Records of mismanagement in the accounts records were evident. It began with the falsification of profit gains due to claims of a successful collaboration with Blockbuster Video that never was. To cover up the conspiracy, they had to manipulate their accounts leading to an actual consequential loss of profits of $600 million, and a total loss of all company profit estimated to the figure of $591. This ultimate loss led to an increase in debt figures for the organization in the amount of $628 million as was the case in the year running from 1997 to 2000. This fraud in their accounts records guaranteed them an opportunity to increase its earnings in the share market due to the prevailing pressure of reflecting a high EPS figure. The former was a ratio of total earnings divided by the number of shares of a company (Mitchel Sikka, 2012). The above fraudulent case would have prevented had there been accountability on the part of the internal audit team, who went ahead to provide incorrect figures without giving a second thought to the outcome of their consequences. They acted independently without the knowledge of the major stakeholders of the company as the management set up of the company did not interfere in their affairs. There should have been regulation in the way business was conducted in the organization as all the non-executive heads were left to task in the performance of their duties. They were not held accountable for their actions as they were allowed to independently cater for any shortcomings in the business. Lastly, there should have been an alignment of management goals with those of shareholders to prevent conflict of interests as was the apparent case. Bibliography MITCHELL, A. V., SIKKA, P. 2012.  Dirty business: the unchecked power of major accountancy firms. MONKS, R. A., MINOW, N. 2011.  Corporate governance. Chichester, Wiley FREEMAN, R. E. (2010).  Stakeholder theory: the state of the art. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. BAVLY, D. A. 1999.  Corporate governance and accountability: what role for the regulator, director, and auditor?  Westport, Conn. [u.a.], Quorum Books. JONES, M. 2011.  Creative accounting, fraud and international accounting scandals. Chichester, West Sussex, England, John Wiley Sons. KAMMERER, M. 2009.  Creative Accounting, the Enron Case and its impact on Corporate Governance. München, GRIN Verlag GmbH.

HONORS OBSERVATION Essay Example For Students

HONORS OBSERVATION Essay Gina Geraci May 30, 2002 Human Development I 47/260 (202301) HONORS OBSERVATION Essay This paper investigates the nature of moral dilemma using Lawrence Kohlbergs cognitive developmental theory of moralization (Reimer, Joseph) applied to a field observation that I conducted with an eleven-year-old girl and a twenty-seven year old man. I begin by considering the inspiration of Kohlbergs theory; Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget. Then, I examine Kohlbergs six stages of moral development. Following, I classify my findings with the two subjects I interviewed in accordance with Kohlbergs stages. *** Jean Piaget is a recognized pioneer in the research of moral development in children (Dunlop, Ronald). Piaget saw children as moving through two broad stages of moral understanding (Text p.394). The first stage is heteronomous morality, which extends from about five to ten years of age (Text p.396). Heteronomous means that an individual is subject to the external authority of another; not autonomous. Children at this stage view the consequence of an act to be of greater value than the intention of an act. Respect for parental and adult authority and the rules imposed by them, prevail as the childs working model of morality (Dunlop, Ronald). The second stage is autonomous morality, which manifest around the age of ten years. At this time, a transition from concrete thinking (that moral perspective is fixed according to adult authority) moves to a more advanced level of internal moral thinking. The individual at this stage realizes that people can have different perspectives on moral matters and that intentions, not just outcomes, should serve as the basis for judging behavior (Text p. 396). Piagets theory of moral development describes a general direction that children tend to follow in the course of maturity. Nevertheless, he underestimated the capacity of moral elasticity a child may have in moral reasoning with his accounts of children being rigid and fixed. His groundbreaking work has been replaced by a more sophisticated theory of moral development that surpasses the child into adolescence and following moral progress into adulthood by Kohlbergs comprehensive theory of a six stage sequence (Text p396). Kohlberg believed that people progress in their moral reasoning and that this could be charted through six identifiable stages, which can be more generally classified into three levels (Barger, Robert). The first is called the Pre-Conventional Level. This level is similar to Piagets heteronomous stage, in which the individual is externally controlled. This first level of moral thinking is generally found at the elementary school level (Barger, Robert). Within this level is stage one and stage two. Stage one is obedience and punishment orientation. Children at this stage find it difficult to consider two points of view in moral dilemma (Text p397). They ignore the intentions of people, and obedience is compelled out of a fear of punishment. The second stage, instrumental purpose orientation, emphasizes self- interest. Children at this stage begin to realize that people may have different perspectives in a moral dilemma, but their thinking is still very concrete. The satisfaction of personal needs coincides with right action; they believe that others also act out of self-interest. The second level of moral development is the Conventional Level. This moral thinking is generally found in society. Individuals at this level still value social rules, but not for reasons of self-interest, rather they have a concern for the social system in which they live. They want to ensure harmonious human relationships and social order. The first stage of this level (stage three) is the good boy-good girl orientation or the morality of interpersonal cooperation. This third stageis characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others (Barger, Robert). These individuals want to be considered trustworthy, loyal, supportive, and nice. There are considerations of the reciprocal relationship in terms of the Golden Rule. .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .postImageUrl , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:hover , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:visited , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:active { border:0!important; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:active , .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6 .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u90a7c30096c2f4566d53fb4e2d1307f6:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: THE EARTH SUN AND OTHER STUFF Essay Stage four at this level is the social-order-maintaining orientation. At this stage, the individual takes into account a larger perspective- that of societal laws (Text p.398). This individual believes in the order that laws bring to society and these laws are vital to ensure social order. The third level is the postconventional or Principled level. This level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority of adults (Barger, Robert). Individuals at this level move beyond the absolute righteousness of societal law and define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies (Text p398). Social contract orientation (stage five) is the first stage of the third level. At this stage individuals regard laws and